Any question of how their parents cope with the birth of her first child a new family member. So, how the child will become "at large", regardless of age that is? Here are some tips to prepare a child we welcome brother / sister:
1. need to be told what is the process of birth - it appears the child in the womb (mother and father and together they make love child) and how they grow;
2. should be left to sweep the mother's stomach, belly baby talk to them;
3. to be told that your child will come when he will have to help their parents because the child will need help;
4. after birth must be small loads - to bring diapers, bring a towel, etc. to raise the little clothes., but, look! only task for his age, in any event not be given such responsibilities to keep him in arms and make him fall asleep or to wash it, etc. are not suitable for his age;
5. must tell him, before birth, that it was him, than in the womb and the small became great and now it's his turn to help the new-born to grow it big - many children become jealous brothers smaller because they imagine that excessive attention to her parents will always be so, as children grow and they will not, and they will be young again and that they be treated like this;
6. should be explained that the relationship between brother and sister is a special, they help each other, as they love to share everything, they are forever bound together - children do not realize, unless they are explained that they have a special relationship with the newcomer on the world - must be explained in this time;
7. should tell him and the birthing process - the fact that the mother will go to the hospital and doctors will help to remove the child from the belly, the child should really visit the hospital and see with your baby and father;
8. should be encouraged to play with him and talk to him when awake;
9. should not sleep in the same room with the small, as no parents should not sleep with the little bed, which would awaken a normal reaction to envy from the sea, not to mention that it is not recommended to sleep with parents prichindeii ;
10. must distinguish between a boy and a girl (through play and drawing), to know the details of physiological differentiation, including those related to sex (without using the term "folk" need to know the penis and vagina).
Sunday, 13 February 2011
Saturday, 12 February 2011
Interpersonal Relations
The concept of human relations occupy a privileged place in social psychology. From the very definition of the discipline that his main concern is the interaction between social actors, relations between persons in a social field (group, organization). Relationship or connection is the very way of expressing the human individual, placed in context. The interaction is growing, as we have seen, human intelligence, it values the skills, influence is exercised or performed human socialization. Relationship with another (others), be they parents, siblings, friends, institutions and organizations committed to each individual in a network of links, it added, it drives him to seek or develop their skills. We need another to confirm our identity or to critically evaluate our attitudes and behaviors. The get to know each other better, another is our mirror image, an Alter-Ego. At the same time another is a support for each of us: we will influence the level of aspirations and by his knowledge and enriches our culture through his intellectual behaviors and attitudes, helping us to overcome critical situations, we impose ideas or opposition to the authority from some of our attitudes and inappropriate gestures.
Interpersonal relations can appear as mere membership, expressed through cooperation and sociability, the attraction to each other (love, emotional attachment), by hatred, because of feelings of inferiority and guilt, but also through human solidarity and commitment.
The study of interpersonal relations can be approached from two perspectives: cognitive theory and theories reinforce the harmony. The first theory holds that people are trying to maintain harmony with others because some fear that without it, would establish a state of malaise, discomfort, bad. Therefore, individuals try to establish positive communication relationship (balance, symmetry, harmony) and avoid negative ones. This theory was influenced by studies of Heider (1958) on balance, symmetry theory of Newcomb (1961) and cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957). According to these theories, in order to maintain inner harmony we need those who resemble us and I cherish those we share this feeling (reciprocity). Strengthening theories derive their substance from the study of mutual perceptions of partners. Strengthening may come from outside the social environment or come into contact with acelorlalţi (cognitive theories emphasize the role of the individual and his role in "harmonization."
Strengthening theories postulates are:
a) human life is hedonistic, which means that the purpose of life is to seek and obtain pleasure, its own sake, rejecting both the difficulties and pains and reduce costs further;
b) human existence is rational, that is able to select information, assess probabilities and to reach good decisions. Individual's effort is to maximize this power, reducing costs.
According to this latter theory of interpersonal relationship is a social exchange (Homans, 1961). It looked so human interactions with some economic transactions. To get the resources they consider worthwhile, the individual seeks the approval of others, their affection. If resources are scarce or difficult to reach, he will take many social exchanges to get the feeling of "fullness", fulfilling personal satisfaction. After Homans people are rewarded in their efforts, according to "investment" social. There is thus a distributive justice based on costs and profit.
Social interdependence theory (Thibaut and Kelley, 1959) postulates the interdependence between individuals: each depends on others, the individual compares with others to continually get new information on group standards of behavior. Based on that information obtained by comparison augment its supply and can build a positive sense.
Types of interpersonal relationships
Affiliation expresses the social nature of human existence, that of being with others, need to count on the support team. Human individual is obliged to cooperate in order to live among others, obtain existing resources to achieve goals outside of these guidelines is impossible attitude. Man is so dependent on others, and this interdependence is manifested by the need of affiliation with groups, social structures and individuals who can sustain. Social contacts help us to overcome uncertainty or stress, to control a situation that causes anxiety, to remove fear.
Attachment can be defined as an emotional relationship between two people. For example, parent-child relationship is based on physical contact and facial expression (crying or smiling). There were three types of parent-infant attachment: a) security relationship when the mother is attentive, available and capable of meeting the child's needs. The parent then the child explores and discovers the environment, b) the relationship when the mother rejects the child to avoid searching for physical and emotional contact. In this case the child is detached from the mother, one avoids c) anxious-ambivalent relationship occurs when the mother is slow in its responses to the needs of his child when his response is unpredictable. A mother finds herself unwilling or even inaccessible to the child protests, his anxiety in the end.
Attachment theory includes two main trends: one that considers the relationship of attachment as instinctual, one that defines it as a social relationship learned, acquired. In both cases the conduct of the two partners is interactive, encouraging exploration entourage, support by many outward signs of this behavior.
Attachment involves an active response to the solicitude so others and create emotional connections:
physical care to the child and his emotional security.
Friendship. Landed on Earth, The Little Prince, strange and righteous hero of Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, he meets Snake. "Why is it so deserted here? I ask. Loud alone. Where are the men?" And the serpent with wisdom, replied: "Alone among people feel." If you can not find them unless you want to know them, communicate with them, stand alone. And another character guides the Little Prince to discover people. E Fox, who teaches him "charmer", ie the value of human relations, friendship that connects and transforms them. "Looking for friends," says Little Prince, who knows what it means "to tame". When Fox says: "It is something that too much is forgotten. It means to create your links. You're not for me than a boy, like the others, and for you I am only a fox, like many other foxes . But if you tame me, you will be unparalleled in the world to me, my life will brighten. Then I will call up your den a song ... I'll be great when you have tamed. " And it urges: "Please, tame me. If you want to have friends, tame me. Do not know than what we have tamed."
At the time of separation from the Little Prince, Fox discovered his "secret" to: "... do not see clearly only with the heart. The eyes can not penetrate into bedrock. Only time" spent "with a friend is that he is so precious. You become responsible for everything you have "tamed". " The relationship of friendship, so it makes the man, it rises, expresses the true measure of human aspiration for perfection and fulfillment.
So friendship involves:
a) mutual sharing of opinions, values or personality traits,
b) satisfaction of social and personal needs (to be encouraged, supported, valued, loved),
c) is often a physical attraction;
d) develop a sense of pleasure, happiness, wellbeing,
e) indicates mutual attraction, appreciation of the other qualities of intellectual, physical, moral, etc..,
f) is manifested by the need for physical proximity to each other (by providing confidence and sense of security as it tries to close).
Friendship means mutual help, emotional support, support for social integration. The relationship of friendship is based on sense experience of similarity in ideas, beliefs, membership social. It appears and develops over time through mutual understanding, by crawling along some events, the evidence must always be reinforced.
Intimate relationships involve the internalization of links, know each other. Some authors understand the intimate love alone, others included here and friendship or kinship between family members. Of adults asking them to define privacy, Waring (1980) obtained the following themes: sharing the sharing of private thoughts and dreams, sexuality, affection for another person and commitment vis-à-vis this, no resentment, possession of an identity stable personal (self-esteem, knowing the exact needs).
R.J. Vallerand (1994) thus brings together the "themes" of the main privacy: a) a need that manifests an individual to another, strengthened by heat, mutual exchanges, joint effort for social integration, b) privacy can be defined as the capacity personal, stable relationship that involves commitment, sacrifice, compromise, c) appears as a process of rapprochement between two individuals, in their attempt to know the deeper and satisfy their personal needs and aspirations; d) contributing factor intimacy is often determinant of intimate relationships.
How intimate relationships evolving? When transformed into an intimate interpersonal relationship? Lavinger (1988) identified three stages of development: a) a carefully stage (opening to the other, granting each other's attention to gestures, body expression, physical contact), a surface contact stage, the rules of participation, attached to social roles, status of mutuality requires a deep knowledge of the other, the intensity of feelings.
Intimate relationships are not blind, irrational or just romantic, passionate. They imply the existence of norms or rules, according to the culture and community or social context-ideological age. There is even a normative vocabulary to describe emotions occasioned by the presence of others. To evaluate and describe the degree of identity, different cultures use specific phrases, according to accepted codes used by larger groups or communities.
Intimate relationships require ongoing communication between the two partners, finding specific forms of communication. Separating couples marital communication deficit. Formulation and feeds messaging relationship, a continuous strengthening.
Psychosocial Determinants of relationship
a) close physical proximity, and reduced the geographical distance appears to us as an exciting relationship. Research of Festinger, Schachter and Back (1950) have shown that living in neighboring apartments facilitates contacts. This creates familiarity, multiply the opportunities for meetings. After establishing the relationship, partners define the borders and - usually - resist "invasion" of a stranger in this intimate space.
b) similarity-complementarity factor acts as a reciprocity of interests, opinions, tastes, means of communication. Individuals who have more in common (are similar) are often linked together and show predilections for those who share their preferences. Similarities can take many forms: clothing, emotions, social status. The similarity can be developed, the two partners, self-esteem and create positive feelings. Complementarity, in turn, and this may be a factor in relationships. The difference often strengthens the relationship and complementarity appears as a compensatory mechanism.
c) Physical attraction is a factor of intimate relationships. Impact assessment and other physical appearance also shows irrationality of a large number of judgments that we undertake. Agreeable individuals are more likely to be wanted, appreciated, valued positively. This attraction is driven by the following mechanism: people who have a positive self-perception identifies with those who they think look like them. Interpersonal relationship is driven by three factors:Intepersonale relations can be carried out at different levels and can take different forms. Such contact may identify zero when the individual supports the presence of another but does not seek to enter into relationship with him, superficial relationship implies the existence of some common interests (cinema, music, football), but in a non-binding. These are our everyday relations with colleagues, neighbors, acquaintances. The level of reciprocity means sharing of common beliefs, values and feelings, affection toward one another, or even love.
The above theories suggest that interpersonal relationships and forms are manifested.
Interpersonal relations can appear as mere membership, expressed through cooperation and sociability, the attraction to each other (love, emotional attachment), by hatred, because of feelings of inferiority and guilt, but also through human solidarity and commitment.
The study of interpersonal relations can be approached from two perspectives: cognitive theory and theories reinforce the harmony. The first theory holds that people are trying to maintain harmony with others because some fear that without it, would establish a state of malaise, discomfort, bad. Therefore, individuals try to establish positive communication relationship (balance, symmetry, harmony) and avoid negative ones. This theory was influenced by studies of Heider (1958) on balance, symmetry theory of Newcomb (1961) and cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957). According to these theories, in order to maintain inner harmony we need those who resemble us and I cherish those we share this feeling (reciprocity). Strengthening theories derive their substance from the study of mutual perceptions of partners. Strengthening may come from outside the social environment or come into contact with acelorlalţi (cognitive theories emphasize the role of the individual and his role in "harmonization."
Strengthening theories postulates are:
a) human life is hedonistic, which means that the purpose of life is to seek and obtain pleasure, its own sake, rejecting both the difficulties and pains and reduce costs further;
b) human existence is rational, that is able to select information, assess probabilities and to reach good decisions. Individual's effort is to maximize this power, reducing costs.
According to this latter theory of interpersonal relationship is a social exchange (Homans, 1961). It looked so human interactions with some economic transactions. To get the resources they consider worthwhile, the individual seeks the approval of others, their affection. If resources are scarce or difficult to reach, he will take many social exchanges to get the feeling of "fullness", fulfilling personal satisfaction. After Homans people are rewarded in their efforts, according to "investment" social. There is thus a distributive justice based on costs and profit.
Social interdependence theory (Thibaut and Kelley, 1959) postulates the interdependence between individuals: each depends on others, the individual compares with others to continually get new information on group standards of behavior. Based on that information obtained by comparison augment its supply and can build a positive sense.
Types of interpersonal relationships
Affiliation expresses the social nature of human existence, that of being with others, need to count on the support team. Human individual is obliged to cooperate in order to live among others, obtain existing resources to achieve goals outside of these guidelines is impossible attitude. Man is so dependent on others, and this interdependence is manifested by the need of affiliation with groups, social structures and individuals who can sustain. Social contacts help us to overcome uncertainty or stress, to control a situation that causes anxiety, to remove fear.
Attachment can be defined as an emotional relationship between two people. For example, parent-child relationship is based on physical contact and facial expression (crying or smiling). There were three types of parent-infant attachment: a) security relationship when the mother is attentive, available and capable of meeting the child's needs. The parent then the child explores and discovers the environment, b) the relationship when the mother rejects the child to avoid searching for physical and emotional contact. In this case the child is detached from the mother, one avoids c) anxious-ambivalent relationship occurs when the mother is slow in its responses to the needs of his child when his response is unpredictable. A mother finds herself unwilling or even inaccessible to the child protests, his anxiety in the end.
Attachment theory includes two main trends: one that considers the relationship of attachment as instinctual, one that defines it as a social relationship learned, acquired. In both cases the conduct of the two partners is interactive, encouraging exploration entourage, support by many outward signs of this behavior.
Attachment involves an active response to the solicitude so others and create emotional connections:
physical care to the child and his emotional security.
Friendship. Landed on Earth, The Little Prince, strange and righteous hero of Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, he meets Snake. "Why is it so deserted here? I ask. Loud alone. Where are the men?" And the serpent with wisdom, replied: "Alone among people feel." If you can not find them unless you want to know them, communicate with them, stand alone. And another character guides the Little Prince to discover people. E Fox, who teaches him "charmer", ie the value of human relations, friendship that connects and transforms them. "Looking for friends," says Little Prince, who knows what it means "to tame". When Fox says: "It is something that too much is forgotten. It means to create your links. You're not for me than a boy, like the others, and for you I am only a fox, like many other foxes . But if you tame me, you will be unparalleled in the world to me, my life will brighten. Then I will call up your den a song ... I'll be great when you have tamed. " And it urges: "Please, tame me. If you want to have friends, tame me. Do not know than what we have tamed."
At the time of separation from the Little Prince, Fox discovered his "secret" to: "... do not see clearly only with the heart. The eyes can not penetrate into bedrock. Only time" spent "with a friend is that he is so precious. You become responsible for everything you have "tamed". " The relationship of friendship, so it makes the man, it rises, expresses the true measure of human aspiration for perfection and fulfillment.
So friendship involves:
a) mutual sharing of opinions, values or personality traits,
b) satisfaction of social and personal needs (to be encouraged, supported, valued, loved),
c) is often a physical attraction;
d) develop a sense of pleasure, happiness, wellbeing,
e) indicates mutual attraction, appreciation of the other qualities of intellectual, physical, moral, etc..,
f) is manifested by the need for physical proximity to each other (by providing confidence and sense of security as it tries to close).
Friendship means mutual help, emotional support, support for social integration. The relationship of friendship is based on sense experience of similarity in ideas, beliefs, membership social. It appears and develops over time through mutual understanding, by crawling along some events, the evidence must always be reinforced.
Intimate relationships involve the internalization of links, know each other. Some authors understand the intimate love alone, others included here and friendship or kinship between family members. Of adults asking them to define privacy, Waring (1980) obtained the following themes: sharing the sharing of private thoughts and dreams, sexuality, affection for another person and commitment vis-à-vis this, no resentment, possession of an identity stable personal (self-esteem, knowing the exact needs).
R.J. Vallerand (1994) thus brings together the "themes" of the main privacy: a) a need that manifests an individual to another, strengthened by heat, mutual exchanges, joint effort for social integration, b) privacy can be defined as the capacity personal, stable relationship that involves commitment, sacrifice, compromise, c) appears as a process of rapprochement between two individuals, in their attempt to know the deeper and satisfy their personal needs and aspirations; d) contributing factor intimacy is often determinant of intimate relationships.
How intimate relationships evolving? When transformed into an intimate interpersonal relationship? Lavinger (1988) identified three stages of development: a) a carefully stage (opening to the other, granting each other's attention to gestures, body expression, physical contact), a surface contact stage, the rules of participation, attached to social roles, status of mutuality requires a deep knowledge of the other, the intensity of feelings.
Intimate relationships are not blind, irrational or just romantic, passionate. They imply the existence of norms or rules, according to the culture and community or social context-ideological age. There is even a normative vocabulary to describe emotions occasioned by the presence of others. To evaluate and describe the degree of identity, different cultures use specific phrases, according to accepted codes used by larger groups or communities.
Intimate relationships require ongoing communication between the two partners, finding specific forms of communication. Separating couples marital communication deficit. Formulation and feeds messaging relationship, a continuous strengthening.
Psychosocial Determinants of relationship
a) close physical proximity, and reduced the geographical distance appears to us as an exciting relationship. Research of Festinger, Schachter and Back (1950) have shown that living in neighboring apartments facilitates contacts. This creates familiarity, multiply the opportunities for meetings. After establishing the relationship, partners define the borders and - usually - resist "invasion" of a stranger in this intimate space.
b) similarity-complementarity factor acts as a reciprocity of interests, opinions, tastes, means of communication. Individuals who have more in common (are similar) are often linked together and show predilections for those who share their preferences. Similarities can take many forms: clothing, emotions, social status. The similarity can be developed, the two partners, self-esteem and create positive feelings. Complementarity, in turn, and this may be a factor in relationships. The difference often strengthens the relationship and complementarity appears as a compensatory mechanism.
c) Physical attraction is a factor of intimate relationships. Impact assessment and other physical appearance also shows irrationality of a large number of judgments that we undertake. Agreeable individuals are more likely to be wanted, appreciated, valued positively. This attraction is driven by the following mechanism: people who have a positive self-perception identifies with those who they think look like them. Interpersonal relationship is driven by three factors:Intepersonale relations can be carried out at different levels and can take different forms. Such contact may identify zero when the individual supports the presence of another but does not seek to enter into relationship with him, superficial relationship implies the existence of some common interests (cinema, music, football), but in a non-binding. These are our everyday relations with colleagues, neighbors, acquaintances. The level of reciprocity means sharing of common beliefs, values and feelings, affection toward one another, or even love.
The above theories suggest that interpersonal relationships and forms are manifested.
Psychosocial identity
The concept of identity, social psychology, defines psihologicului with the social interaction at the level of each individual. Individual builds on itself in relation to others, to society. He formed a social conscience that motivates their personal qualities and their own existence to the existence of others. The update identification at individual, social environmental characteristics. Includes individual, the personality, social influences and representations that the socio-cultural and offer them to form "hard lump" of his thought, the manner in which they relate to others and evaluate their own position. Identity is thus the product of an interactive process between individual and social field.
The concept of identity has been approached either from the psychoanalytic perspective, the internalization of rules by itself (in this respect mention four key aspects of identity: confidence, stable nature of individual elements, ego integration, adherence to group values and identity its) or from a sociological perspective, meaning the various forms of integration into a social order. In the first case it is a synthesis of various personal items with social values (social identity is, therefore, internalization of norms, social learning). Following Erikson, identity construction is achieved through joint effort of the individual to society. We, in this case, a particular personal identity, a product often isolated context. In the second case the identity is described as a reflection dialectic, the individual, common values in a society. Identity is thus imposed by the social stimulus is a tank-type identities. Social identity is formed, in this case, the values provided by membership groups, the wider social context. The individual is "permeated" outside.
Psycho-social perspective, identity is the result of interaction between the psychological components of personality with sociological variables. The individual is asked to state as a social actor to play a social role, to engage in building social.
Companies are facing an acute problem, due to new social changes. People are asking more and more meaning and impact on community life and professional influence that it has ideologicul and politics on our conscience. Us with reference to everything that surrounds us and our development in this context, we often ask questions about our identity.
Strictly speaking, identity refers to the continuity of the fact that the individual remains the same over time, that perseveres in the formula itself. More broadly, the identity can be treated as a unifying representation of existence, the self-image and self-concept. But as far as practices related to social, cultural enrichment and social anchorage, the identity can not be limited to self-image and the transmission of cultural representations. It builds structures by assuming the roles of the social scene and recover during continued existence. Why is psycho.
In reality, individuals are not isolated units, but not merely the product of influences or social pressures. People do not live in isolation, but in a social context, belonging to groups, social and professional categories. When we examine the individual and self-concept studies and social environment which is placed the individual events he has crossed. Identity is the central node of personality which is in interaction with other personalities, social context. It is formed through a process of socialization and social comparison. It is a synthesis of the notions of self, the affirmation of self in comparison with other personalities, other selves. Meet the individual's characteristics relative to its social norms and self-representation, relative to others.
In defining the concept of identity, says Marisa Zavalloni (1973), we must take into account four dimensions:
1) consciousness of individual identity, taken as a positive feeling, present in all aspects of self,
2) personal character stability, continuity and consistency in behavior,
3) integration of self, the synthesis of self and context, 4) the ideals of solidarity and group membership identity.
Identity is not, therefore, as only personal, not just social. It brings together the subjectivity and objectivity, the individual and the social.
Psychosocial identity is the result of intersection of the social (represented by groups, institutions, communities) with the individual, bringing self-representation and others. It is a synthesis of individual essence and characteristics of a common culture between personal skills and social roles of the individual.
A concept is abandoned now that the identity be developed during the first years of life and perfected soon enough. In reality the process of identity formation is a complex process marked by discontinuities, which never ends and involves many life experiences, conflicts, transformations. It is a dynamic process in a personal context.
In adolescence, identity effort plays a crucial role since it allows the individual to integrate social requirements, marking different stages of its evolution. Sometimes, however, the process of assuming a new identity in adolescence, involves a rejection of the previous stage, a break with the parental image. To protect his new identity, the teenager is tempted to distance himself from his own childhood narcissistic identity. He rebuilds his identity to the new dominant (social, sexual) that marks his existence. The ideal self is constructed by reference to the group of friends, equals.
Affirming identity, recently wrote P. Tap (1997) includes the following dimensions:
• Ensuring that gives a sense of stability, integration in perspective and ability to develop life projects.
• Internal consistency allows the subject facility or office to find evidence of link between the various activities and events through which he passes, to make sense of his personal history.
• Diversity: the articulation of multiple identities (physical, ethnic, national, legal, cultural), their confrontation on a "territory" common.
• Autonomy and affirmation. To form, the individual is often opposed to outside pressure, it differentiates, distinguishes itself from others. Differentiation can take the form of opposition cognitive disorders. The opposite of this attitude is compliance with group expectations, passive assimilation.
Originality: singularity signifies the tendency of individuals to assert their unity.
Action is the result of ownership. States and reinforce identity by producing "masterpieces" by individual creativity.
Valuing. By action and overcoming difficult situations, the individual value on the eyes of others and his own eyes. He needs and strives to be recognized, loved, admired, accepted, confirmed. Everyone harbors a desire to assert themselves in a social context, in relation to the people you admire. Desire for change, the effort for progress stems from the same need for valuation.
To build on the individual develops an identity strategy. This is manifested through the development of individual and collective actors and expressed by the adjustments made by them every day, depending on the situations, challenges and their resources.
To enact the strategy of identity, three elements are thus required: a) actors (individuals or groups) with their specific resources, with their potential, b) where they are involved, the types of interactions that are employed and stake put into play, c) the purpose of monitoring how it allows differentiation and assimilation.
Strategies of identity behaviors are associated with active and conscious or unconscious defense mechanisms. The first are positive (differentiation, assimilation, affirmation, retreat), others have negative character: rejection, exclusion, devaluation, collusion. French psycho C. Camilleri (1990) called social actor victory identity effort to assert its own identity by engaging behaviors (individual or collective, adapted or unadapted) to finalize a draft of personal change.
The concept of identity has been approached either from the psychoanalytic perspective, the internalization of rules by itself (in this respect mention four key aspects of identity: confidence, stable nature of individual elements, ego integration, adherence to group values and identity its) or from a sociological perspective, meaning the various forms of integration into a social order. In the first case it is a synthesis of various personal items with social values (social identity is, therefore, internalization of norms, social learning). Following Erikson, identity construction is achieved through joint effort of the individual to society. We, in this case, a particular personal identity, a product often isolated context. In the second case the identity is described as a reflection dialectic, the individual, common values in a society. Identity is thus imposed by the social stimulus is a tank-type identities. Social identity is formed, in this case, the values provided by membership groups, the wider social context. The individual is "permeated" outside.
Psycho-social perspective, identity is the result of interaction between the psychological components of personality with sociological variables. The individual is asked to state as a social actor to play a social role, to engage in building social.
Companies are facing an acute problem, due to new social changes. People are asking more and more meaning and impact on community life and professional influence that it has ideologicul and politics on our conscience. Us with reference to everything that surrounds us and our development in this context, we often ask questions about our identity.
Strictly speaking, identity refers to the continuity of the fact that the individual remains the same over time, that perseveres in the formula itself. More broadly, the identity can be treated as a unifying representation of existence, the self-image and self-concept. But as far as practices related to social, cultural enrichment and social anchorage, the identity can not be limited to self-image and the transmission of cultural representations. It builds structures by assuming the roles of the social scene and recover during continued existence. Why is psycho.
In reality, individuals are not isolated units, but not merely the product of influences or social pressures. People do not live in isolation, but in a social context, belonging to groups, social and professional categories. When we examine the individual and self-concept studies and social environment which is placed the individual events he has crossed. Identity is the central node of personality which is in interaction with other personalities, social context. It is formed through a process of socialization and social comparison. It is a synthesis of the notions of self, the affirmation of self in comparison with other personalities, other selves. Meet the individual's characteristics relative to its social norms and self-representation, relative to others.
In defining the concept of identity, says Marisa Zavalloni (1973), we must take into account four dimensions:
1) consciousness of individual identity, taken as a positive feeling, present in all aspects of self,
2) personal character stability, continuity and consistency in behavior,
3) integration of self, the synthesis of self and context, 4) the ideals of solidarity and group membership identity.
Identity is not, therefore, as only personal, not just social. It brings together the subjectivity and objectivity, the individual and the social.
Psychosocial identity is the result of intersection of the social (represented by groups, institutions, communities) with the individual, bringing self-representation and others. It is a synthesis of individual essence and characteristics of a common culture between personal skills and social roles of the individual.
A concept is abandoned now that the identity be developed during the first years of life and perfected soon enough. In reality the process of identity formation is a complex process marked by discontinuities, which never ends and involves many life experiences, conflicts, transformations. It is a dynamic process in a personal context.
In adolescence, identity effort plays a crucial role since it allows the individual to integrate social requirements, marking different stages of its evolution. Sometimes, however, the process of assuming a new identity in adolescence, involves a rejection of the previous stage, a break with the parental image. To protect his new identity, the teenager is tempted to distance himself from his own childhood narcissistic identity. He rebuilds his identity to the new dominant (social, sexual) that marks his existence. The ideal self is constructed by reference to the group of friends, equals.
Affirming identity, recently wrote P. Tap (1997) includes the following dimensions:
• Ensuring that gives a sense of stability, integration in perspective and ability to develop life projects.
• Internal consistency allows the subject facility or office to find evidence of link between the various activities and events through which he passes, to make sense of his personal history.
• Diversity: the articulation of multiple identities (physical, ethnic, national, legal, cultural), their confrontation on a "territory" common.
• Autonomy and affirmation. To form, the individual is often opposed to outside pressure, it differentiates, distinguishes itself from others. Differentiation can take the form of opposition cognitive disorders. The opposite of this attitude is compliance with group expectations, passive assimilation.
Originality: singularity signifies the tendency of individuals to assert their unity.
Action is the result of ownership. States and reinforce identity by producing "masterpieces" by individual creativity.
Valuing. By action and overcoming difficult situations, the individual value on the eyes of others and his own eyes. He needs and strives to be recognized, loved, admired, accepted, confirmed. Everyone harbors a desire to assert themselves in a social context, in relation to the people you admire. Desire for change, the effort for progress stems from the same need for valuation.
To build on the individual develops an identity strategy. This is manifested through the development of individual and collective actors and expressed by the adjustments made by them every day, depending on the situations, challenges and their resources.
To enact the strategy of identity, three elements are thus required: a) actors (individuals or groups) with their specific resources, with their potential, b) where they are involved, the types of interactions that are employed and stake put into play, c) the purpose of monitoring how it allows differentiation and assimilation.
Strategies of identity behaviors are associated with active and conscious or unconscious defense mechanisms. The first are positive (differentiation, assimilation, affirmation, retreat), others have negative character: rejection, exclusion, devaluation, collusion. French psycho C. Camilleri (1990) called social actor victory identity effort to assert its own identity by engaging behaviors (individual or collective, adapted or unadapted) to finalize a draft of personal change.
The role of culture and ideology in shaping personality
When describing your personality, psychologists are located - usually - two positions: the first emphasizes unity, totality and stability by determining its structure and functions (intelligence, affection, desire), and the second, the taxonomy, is concerned with identifying classifiers traits and types. Both relate to the final individual perspective, an operating section in the current state of development of personality. Discretion is the here and now and not as individual arrived at that stage.
A first attempt to explain the evolution of the individual's owe Kardiner A. (1937) who proposed the concept of basic personality, signifying elements in the psycho socio-cultural situations common to a category of individuals in a given situation. Basic personality is the result of cultural and institutional patterns of interaction provided by a company that influence the formation of personality, physical model, environmental, familial, educational, cultural, ideological, that the individual models in system design. R. Linton, in turn, develops a theory on the relationship between personality and culture. Lewin K. After two terms person and environment are interrelated, each building according to the other. Historical Materialism proposes that socio-historical primacy of the individual factor that is socially specific "transplanted" in the individual. Individual, in other words, there is a generator of personality, but a carrier of the essence "conceived" in a particular socio-cultural framework. Hence the postulated structure, organization and orientation depending on the specific personality and society class. Let us examine how the cultural environment how ideological persuasion have been understood over time.
We recorded first, the presence of the idea that the reality we call individuality and its derivatives (self, personal identity, personality) is constructed through interaction with each other. This concept is found in W. McDougall for anchoring social facts of human nature (eg "group instinct"), Floyd Allport identifying the decisive importance of learning, especially social purchases at GH Mead (1934) which stresses the interiorization itself in the construction of another opinion. From comportamentişti and interactionist to social learning theorists, we find described various ways in which interaction facilitates the acquisition of new situations. The company, of course, but it can not be reduced to "one", even if it is "generalized" (Mead) or underlined in capital: Other. Society (entourage, others) is presented as a system of social relationships, organizational structures (eg hierarchical) representation and cultural facts. The idea of another, multiplied in different ways, participate in developing "individualized construction," as called JL Beauvois (1999) this process of absorption and processing.
A line of research that won at a time, was that the importance of human groups in shaping an individual matrix. We mention here the contribution of W. Wundt, with his theory on the psychology of nations (Völkerpsychologie) which has devoted two decades (1900-1920). From this perspective have developed schemes fascinating, often marked by suspect ideology, as he called Beauvois, but legitimate "scientific", the "civilizing" of peoples by others. All cultural rankings were, in fact, a racist ideological support.
Current culturalist ("culture and personality") that did proliferate to research on psychological characteristics of human groups, which has accredited the idea of internal consistency of each culture, inspired, however, research on the differences in values between people. The papers, now classics, published by Margarit Mead, Ruth Benedict, Kardiner and Linton, resulting from research on-site showed a few ideas of this line-force approach: a) has imposed the concept of integrating the whole pattern is consistent, various aspects of a culture, b) highlighted the importance of observable social behaviors (habits, social habitudes) that can be observed, recorded and transmitted, c) individuals shared cultural positions, statuses prescribed and encourages them to play certain roles, d) major contribution of 'culturalist' is that members of a society where action is exerted fasonează cultural institutions and personalities shaping.
All this research, the anthropological bill have been incorporated and valued in social psychology the concept of cultural model, assumed a local broadcast. The contextualizează cultural social environment, providing a common reference current members are reported. The model can be presented as a set of knowledge, beliefs, values and opinions shared by a group, allowing rationalization of the gap between ideas and conduct. This cognitive process of rationalization is presented as a daily assessment of the environment as an explanation of the world, the consistency of individual behavior in different situations. R. Boudon calls "received ideas" ideological products carrying a symbolic action to members of a community, encouraging them to incorporate these products.
A first attempt to explain the evolution of the individual's owe Kardiner A. (1937) who proposed the concept of basic personality, signifying elements in the psycho socio-cultural situations common to a category of individuals in a given situation. Basic personality is the result of cultural and institutional patterns of interaction provided by a company that influence the formation of personality, physical model, environmental, familial, educational, cultural, ideological, that the individual models in system design. R. Linton, in turn, develops a theory on the relationship between personality and culture. Lewin K. After two terms person and environment are interrelated, each building according to the other. Historical Materialism proposes that socio-historical primacy of the individual factor that is socially specific "transplanted" in the individual. Individual, in other words, there is a generator of personality, but a carrier of the essence "conceived" in a particular socio-cultural framework. Hence the postulated structure, organization and orientation depending on the specific personality and society class. Let us examine how the cultural environment how ideological persuasion have been understood over time.
We recorded first, the presence of the idea that the reality we call individuality and its derivatives (self, personal identity, personality) is constructed through interaction with each other. This concept is found in W. McDougall for anchoring social facts of human nature (eg "group instinct"), Floyd Allport identifying the decisive importance of learning, especially social purchases at GH Mead (1934) which stresses the interiorization itself in the construction of another opinion. From comportamentişti and interactionist to social learning theorists, we find described various ways in which interaction facilitates the acquisition of new situations. The company, of course, but it can not be reduced to "one", even if it is "generalized" (Mead) or underlined in capital: Other. Society (entourage, others) is presented as a system of social relationships, organizational structures (eg hierarchical) representation and cultural facts. The idea of another, multiplied in different ways, participate in developing "individualized construction," as called JL Beauvois (1999) this process of absorption and processing.
A line of research that won at a time, was that the importance of human groups in shaping an individual matrix. We mention here the contribution of W. Wundt, with his theory on the psychology of nations (Völkerpsychologie) which has devoted two decades (1900-1920). From this perspective have developed schemes fascinating, often marked by suspect ideology, as he called Beauvois, but legitimate "scientific", the "civilizing" of peoples by others. All cultural rankings were, in fact, a racist ideological support.
Current culturalist ("culture and personality") that did proliferate to research on psychological characteristics of human groups, which has accredited the idea of internal consistency of each culture, inspired, however, research on the differences in values between people. The papers, now classics, published by Margarit Mead, Ruth Benedict, Kardiner and Linton, resulting from research on-site showed a few ideas of this line-force approach: a) has imposed the concept of integrating the whole pattern is consistent, various aspects of a culture, b) highlighted the importance of observable social behaviors (habits, social habitudes) that can be observed, recorded and transmitted, c) individuals shared cultural positions, statuses prescribed and encourages them to play certain roles, d) major contribution of 'culturalist' is that members of a society where action is exerted fasonează cultural institutions and personalities shaping.
All this research, the anthropological bill have been incorporated and valued in social psychology the concept of cultural model, assumed a local broadcast. The contextualizează cultural social environment, providing a common reference current members are reported. The model can be presented as a set of knowledge, beliefs, values and opinions shared by a group, allowing rationalization of the gap between ideas and conduct. This cognitive process of rationalization is presented as a daily assessment of the environment as an explanation of the world, the consistency of individual behavior in different situations. R. Boudon calls "received ideas" ideological products carrying a symbolic action to members of a community, encouraging them to incorporate these products.
WHAT IS SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY?
Social Psychology is a discipline of the border. She claimed their territory at the intersection of psychology with sociology, which is taking office in general psychology and what is psychological sociology. It articulates, among them, the two disciplines. It is, says S. Moscovici, a science-deck.
Our identity interferes with other identities, exchange ideas, feelings, judgments of others, influence or are subjected to social control exercised by institutions or individuals. As Moscovici said, the reality of each of us is a real conflict, tensions and games marked influences of a continuous struggle between order and disorder, coercion and freedom, the opposition between the views, styles, feelings, beliefs. Conflict between individual and society but harmony does not preclude temporary or lasting peace. Specific social psychology is that simultaneously addresses both terms of torque - the individual and society - giving the separation, the habit of treating as autonomous realities. The confrontation of ideas, beliefs, values, representations that we have about them determine and regulate social interactions.
When we say that social psychology studies the relationships, social interactions and exchanges between individuals, we place - of course - the individual as a central element in a relational system, interindividul. The definition given by F. Allport (1924) remains the reference: "Social Psychology as a subject is real or imagined relations between people in a given social context, such as to affect every person involved in this situation." Decades later, his brother, G. Allport (1968) believes that "social psychology tries to explain how thoughts, feelings and behaviors are influenced by the presence of an imaginary individual, implicit or explicit to others." He focuses on the person (cognitive attributes or feelings) that this Directive: another source of influence that our behavior.
Level 1: Analysis intrapsychic (examples: cognitive dissonance, self attribution)
Level 2: Interpersonal processes (examples: the perception of others and interpersonal attraction)
Level 3: interaction between individual and group (examples: compliance group expectations, social facilitation) Level 4: realities of inter-group (examples: competition, inter-group cooperation and exchanges between groups).
Levels of analysis in social psychology can thus be grouped as (by RJ Valleran, d, 1994):
A social psychology textbook I opened we see that it awards the individual a proper place in society. Man is always placed in a specific situation of individual traits articulating a concrete social reality. The man is a man relational social psychology, he is in relationship communication and interaction with others or groups like family, play or work colleagues.
Evening's contribution to the development of our discipline arising from its conception by which human behavior is socially determined. Evening study is considered a precursor of opinions and attitudes, his interest in cognitive and affective aspects of personality, considered the driving force behind social life. In turn, Le Bon found that emotions and beliefs expressed by many sheep tend to require that "unanimously" and can develop into dogmatism and intolerance.
They manifest intense, have a simple construction, are explained and resist change. Le Bon found two causes for this behavior of the crowd: a) emotions and opinions are easily spread, multiply and reinforce each event, b) opinion leaders derive their power of persuasion of personal prestige and local power to fascinate.
Detaching its own territory, social psychology has won that feature, a dynamic, action, ability to intervene in the events. Social psychology man is always in interaction with others, intra-situational, positioned ideologically.
Interaction is a privileged object of social exchange. Jacques-Philippe Leyens said a highly plastic: we can say that social psychology deals with dependence and interdependence of human behaviors. We do so with mutual influence, quantitative or qualitative and it's not even necessary for the partners to be physically present. Just another present it to us so we know the full social psychology. But this is not enough. Since Floyd H. Allport (1924) pointed out that the interaction should be placed in a broader context that fosters the exchange. Contexts may be social, cultural, ideological, or an economy that emphasize the interrelationship may, strangle, block. Interaction of social learning may present as obedience and indoctrination, as a matter of controlling the other. Reaction behavioral traits should be interpreted according to the social context that create conditions for progress.
Sources of inspiration for social psychology, believes, rightly, Drozd-Senkowska, the company offers. Dominant ideology in a given space in a given period, the daily behavior of individuals and human groups were oriented towards research psycho. For example, concern for increased efficiency at work has inspired the famous investigations of E. Mayo and its collaborators on small groups, massive immigration to the United States has stimulated research on attitudes, psychosocial identity, stereotypes and prejudices, has revived research on Nazi compulsion influence and obedience. Changes in Eastern Europe have also opened new research directions, some unexpected. Serge Moscovici, in the preface to the manual tasks that any of our current social psychology is to study social and cultural changes in Eastern Europe. They have a future, it seems, collective psychology, social memory and the nature of social representations. He writes: "For many reasons on which I do not stop here, the future of humanities most plays, paradoxically, in Eastern Europe. We must cooperate and be bound by them, blessing this possibility."
Mugny Deschamp and I emphasized that social psychology is not merely a science of diagnosis, acknowledgment. Field of action - interaction in a given context - has prevented it from becoming a discipline neutral. Who deals with facts and phenomena produced by social agencies and social life can not be "unbiased."
All aspects of the morphological organization of social groups (even the volume density of individuals in the organic structures, especially the distribution of power, division of tasks), interactional techniques used by individuals, their value systems, collective frames of reference are affected by a wing ideological. In turn, social subjects are found in various social behaviors: influence, domination, dependence, deviance, conformity, polarization. We can therefore analyze the communication between individuals than considering them in the social context in which it moves, as social actors "put" the socio-cultural characteristics of their environment.
Even personal history must be placed in a social environment, social biography of each topic is situational, contextual. The identity of psychology must be sought in an effort to describe, explain and make each individual social work. It does not provide solutions or recipes on how we should organize and life styles or models not labeled, no subscription required. It offers ways of understanding and interpretation of important phenomena such as influence and change attitudes, conformity and obedience, persuasion, prejudice, love or aggression, it broadcasts a specific psychosociological culture. Subject (individually or collectively) and subject (social or not, real or imagined) determined by their interaction, the ability to identify the three fields of analysis: individual subject (ego), social issues (Alter) and object (physical, social, imaginary or real). Each level of analysis, says Ewa Drozd-Senkowska French teacher, comes in a different way to organize perceptions, experiences and conditions. Intra-individual level analysis focuses on their mechanisms of information processing, individual inter-relational dynamics between individuals are in a situation, the positional level positions on social differences between individuals or groups, and finally, the ideological level, the systems of rules, ideas and beliefs of individuals and groups.
A sociologist E. Durkheim, published in the same period, a study on suicide (1897) by providing a sociological analysis of an individual decision: the tendency of suicide is inversely proportional to the integration of family, religious, social. Also in precursors and should mention the Paolo d'Orano, who published in 1902 in Italy, Psicologia social and Americans William McDougall and E. Ross, with reference to their work: An Introduction to Social Psychology and Social Psychology , both published in 1908.
Finally, it must noted that social psychology as a science experiment, has already reached a century. Initial experiments in social psychology have been made by Norman Triplett in 1897: the effects of competition on individual performance. As a discipline, social psychology was born in the century. Then they appeared in France, the first works that today we might consider beginning of our discipline: Les Lois de l'Imitation (1890) by Gabriel Evening, often foules Psychology (1895) by Gustave Le Bon and the étude Social Psychology ( 1898) all of the Evening. Can not forget Auguste Compte (1798-1857) for which man is shaped by the company operating there, is never isolated individual, a group he is articulate, more or less organized.
Our field is not the individual, as a separate unit, but no groups or organizations as autonomous social structures. Professor French, Romanian-born Serge Moscovici, has found the solution: social psychology studies the opposition between the individual and society, permanent conflict between the two entities. If only individual or only study the social, our discipline would lose their personality, would become a "useless appendix" of the other sciences. But not happened that way.
For some researchers (see E. Enriquez, 1984) and a psycho is calling action, even militaristic. It is at the center of discussion about democracy and citizenship behavior, she welcomes the appearance of solidarity and community life, favoring the affirmation of respect for each other and access to personal autonomy, remove red tape and mortificate mechanisms, propose projects for improvement. Psycho therefore has social responsibilities in recovery projects.
Psycho approach is not only knowledge but action, organizing projects to change inappropriate situations, intervention on the social field. The new psycho speech patterns is defined by going beyond descriptive and / or explanatory perspectives and adopt a heritage much in the social sciences: research and action. He can no longer be limited to describing objects and states, but is concerned about the processes, phenomena and facts, evolving documents, interactions, influences, changes, personality in the situation, the social context.
Collective existence, groups and organizations are formed, and recompose the decomposed masses driven by ideologies or groups of authority and power structures and aggregates organized guided affective (strikes, protests, demonstrations) are no less interesting. Social movements and they can breathe atmospheric studies.
At the end of this text we ask: what social psychology and who still serve today? The professionals of this discipline are often tempted to believe that all social life and conduct of persons may be approached from a perspective psychosociological. From the outside see things differently: focus solely on laboratory experiments, psychology had cut ties with the real social life were organized into a brotherhood (sect!?) Self-sufficient, do not write only for one group of insiders. They're less concerned technicians social affairs of the city and it deserves the treatment that he treats Plato poets. In S. Moscovici's preface, to which we referred above, it calls on the brethren at the dedication of the energies and interests of "understanding the major issues of Europe at the same level as other humanities." Its very strong warning estrus: if we avoid the real problems, urgent, acute contemporary world, "our position on the scientific map will suffer and our marginalization is safe.
Will be increasingly fewer researchers to concern themselves with what happens in social psychology which seek to engage with us. " Concerned with the same problem - what serves social psychology today - the coordinator of a volume of studies on this subject (Guingonoin Le Poultier, 1994) identifies three explanations to understand the weaknesses of applied social psychology: it is less visible (or accessible) for the transfer The technology is burdened by tight style of these studies, the field does not recognize or value the academic field investigations are conducted only in established research laboratories in universities: research often reach conclusions psycho obvious, accessible to anyone, related by common sense.
Faced with so many dilemmas, there can be only one answer: the articulation of theoretical models to empirical facts, the acquisition of theoretical and practical skills used in the interventions: the organizations, local communities, the wider social field. If we fail to be useful, we will disappear.
Psychology "classical" approach we propose a model of personality by the "unity of dynamical systems" (Allport), as "a matter of their skills" (Cattell) or a whole functionally structured, focused finalist, articulated in a system hierarchy "(Stern). The environment in which the individual is formed and evolves evacuated here, ignored, deleted.
Under the influence of interactionism, situaţionismului, construct or theory of the Chicago School (school of cultural anthropology), was born a new perspective: personality is the result of interpersonal relations in which the individual is placed, the social environment and cultural activity is involved.
Constructivist perspective on the personality
Along with the view that personality is seen as an individual unit only there as "emanation" of its features, has developed a personality point of view after the construction is (psycho) social "essence" can be identified to in the interactional process, the social process that occurs between individuals. Specifics of personality must be sought not by recording a large number of features, meeting the "synthesis" unique to each individual, but in how the individual interacts with others!
Constructivist point of view, though recent, is more distant or more immediate precursors. Pierre Janet wrote in 1929: "personality is a set of operations, small and large acts that serve to build individual (sn), maintain and improve his unit and his distinction from the world", adding that the distinction is first social place, and material. A closer our time author believes that, far from being conditioned man "builds itself," factors "were merely" raw material "for the work of Self's works, through acts responsibility (Frankl, 1971).
Key constructivist conception of personality is a personality trait considered as a categorical concept (Hampson, 1982). Features are not relevant to real-world entities, but semantic categories, labels for certain attributes. Instead of describing the behaviors such as "push", "is pripeşte", "no patience", "cut it", saying that the individual is an "impulsive", his way of communicating the synthesis of other relations. Both those who communicate and who is picking up a common code used to designate the social significance of behavior, an accepted language as social actors and social observers, to designate certain "styles" of behavior. Language features translate these behaviors structural qualities, but labeled entities could not be known. There are these features only in the psyche or mind Observatory Actor? Features identified by external observers, and advised whether they are perceived as such by the actor and consistency is reflected in its behavior, manifest in his behavior or in his self-evaluations, it is acting "differently"? The significance of self-assessment, self-perception, it is known, has a central place in personality building.
Personality in terms of features, summarize and communicate the significance of behavior, it is socially constructed by the behavior of the actor and the meaning ascribed to this behavior by the observer and the actor himself. In European Conference on Personality, which was held in Tilburg in 1982, Sarah Hampson (1984) advances a viewpoint by which three components can be identified in this "construction": a) the conduct of the actor as an individual biologically distinct social scene brings b) the meanings they attached to this behavior the actor himself and c) the significance attached by the other actor's behavior.
First, actor: individual provide the raw material - behavior - in which personality is built. Biological endowment to print limits of the individual personality, but these individual differences are not sufficient for understanding personality. Behavioral differences must be noticed and acknowledged by the actor himself and by observers to be loaded with social significance to become a personality. One must assume social roles, to participate, to become the "character" to resolve satisfactorily the report "existence / appearance" to be recognized as a personality. As a self-observer, the individual actor must acquire the ability to see with the eyes of others, to be recognized as distinct and individual notice. We are not only aware that others think about us, we are even able to form an impression about what they think about us, about their image on our person. At the core concept of personality is a social construct "competence" to see the man as others see it. The first step is acquiring the ability to return to itself, to be seen. E conquering self-awareness, the ability to control self-control. Second, recognizing that power to others, awareness of self-awareness of each other. In this way we can get an impression of us do our image in the consciousness of others. The paradox of self-knowledge, says Pavelcu V. (1970) is as follows: the more away from me, the closer. It takes an intermediate link, an indirect relationship, mediated between me and myself as subject as object. This link is another. Through him we come to make an impression on our image in the consciousness of others. "Other" is a crucial source of information about me. Builds their self images matching the others about me, comparing the multitude of selves, manifested by the roles they play him in relation to the social situation. The same individual several roles on "stage" of life. "Acclaimed" each individual is determined by the desire to gain public esteem, prestige, moral character and to avoid negative labels. We build the role of the expectations of others. Paraphrasing M. Mead: Our existence depends on the waste with other waste to enter into relationships. Finally, the actor-observer: observer of personality built component refers to beliefs that people have about personality. Components in a social context, are endowed with social significance by those who observe them. Mentalities, cultural level, the training environment creates a "reading grid" personality, according to an ideal model and evaluate this tool to others. Depending on the personality construct another "theory" that we have formed a social role of personality, personality according to our picture made. G.A. Kelly, author of the theory of "constructs", believes that interpret, anticipate, act according to these "constructs" personal - ideas, concepts, beliefs, attitudes and mentalities. An interpreter of this theory states: "A person anticipates events by their replies" (Bannister, 1973). In other words, do not react to a stimulus, but to what we think is that stimulus. The same event may have a special emotional resonance and record feedback on the fit for an individual and may remain without effect for another. It matters that we give meaning to the event. "Construct" a picture is standard but a set of internal characteristics that individual invariably operates. In Kelly's theory, said S. Hampson, the actor is characterized by a unique set of buildings that interpret the world. He placed in the actor's personality. But in order to interpret the world, the individual needs feed-back offered by other "buildings". Constructivist perspective on personality than Kelly's view, not far from the theory of traits, that it thinks "the construction of personality rather than a closed set, finite variables, although related harmoniously with each other, but as a relational system: build my image of considering my "construction" of others, including their image of me. empathic capacity acquisition brings its own changes to the system construction. empathic competence helps us build the greatest success, its absence leads to the "construction" dissonant, which provides often the occasion for dissatisfaction. We build as personalities so appealing to a variety of sources, many outside of us (comments and feedback to others), even self-observation and self-control are determined by the scale of assessment offered by the group, social collectivity. personality as a social construction design but goes further, arguing that personality is actually created by social relations and therefore can not be located exclusively in the individual. Only social interaction shapes the personality, change our expectations of behavior depending on its appreciate, unless we achieve a sense office building has been validated.
In theories of personality, the situation has often stressed the role: behaviourists, dynamic field theory, personologii, interacţioniştii have shown the situational context. But the consequences for personality research have been reduced. W. Mischel (Personality and Assessment,1968), noting that the various "arrangements" does not cooperate, only weak empirical indicators, argues that changes can be explained by changes in the situation. It therefore requires a taxonomy to classify the situational characteristics for encoding of stimuli, from the perceiver. According to this view, the relevant provisions that are not "introversion-extraversiuinea" or "anxiety", but cognitions, which must act as mediators between environmental changes and behavior "discriminative ability." Essential parameters of this theory are: individual skills "to build" special forms of behavior in appropriate circumstances, "expectations" about some of his events, the value they possess, "consequences" for the person who acts in self-regulating system of the individual. Analyzing the current state of research this issue, David Magnusson (1984), professor at Stockholm University, notes: shortage of everyday language and scientific one who possess conceptualization, relevant distinctions and categories that allow us to communicate systematically about the situation and person by situational interactions. It still ignores the possibility of differentiating behaviors depending on the contexts in which they appear. Theorists "features" have neglected or underestimated role in understanding and explaining behavior situation.
Any attempt to study the personality, therefore, must contain a way to use "situational properties" and "types of situations." It should, without doubt, a taxonomy of situations, as he tried Van Heck (1984), who selected 20 cases with a higher rate of occurrence in everyday life, including: conflict, conversation, cooperation, the declaration of love discussion, exams, lessons, etc. visit. David Magnusson, in turn, believe that a taxonomy of situations is possible as long as there is order and regularity in the environment. If these environmental conditions are met, expected behavior is logical, subject to an end, the part of individuals. Stimuli, events can be grouped into homogeneous categories based on common characteristics. Cultures can be categorized, for example, by means used by individuals to achieve their goals, such as rewarding offered for a certain type of behavior. The order and regularity of physical and social environment can be expressed in terms of physical properties in terms of cultural norms, rules, roles, identifying their meanings for individuals. The interactions undertaken in everyday life, individuals purchase "conceptual machines," said De Raad (1986), which are plausible world around them and their experiences in this world. And through this mechanism, you can call and "social learning", are born and change perceptions about people, about personality and character.
Socialization thus requires, first, learning through interaction with others, patterns of social conduct, the common knowledge or rules, regulations, customs, rites spread in a society. The effect would be to standardize behavior, although this is possible, but the differentiation according to different forms of influence received capabilities and features of the individual to process information. Socialization can be approached with training (as learning to a favorable social insertion), ethnological (the incorporation of models of thought and action as the transmission of knowledge), anthropology (cultural models offering, skills, attitudes and motivations) or psychological (personality development through social interaction with the environment).
For Piaget the child's development is a continuous and balanced, covering some distinct stages, the articulation of two complementary movements: assimilation or incorporation of certain things or conduct the structures already constructed or readjustment and accommodation structures depending on external changes. Going through the different stages of child egocentrism than originally characterized by blurred between myself and the world and ends by the insertion in the school or professional life. Sociologist Emile Durkheim capitalized on the importance of collective consciousness (transmission from one generation to another, the rules and traditions), the role of moral education in building an identity. In turn, Max Weber distinguished associative socialization through volunteer effort, institutional socialization, through the imposition of the legitimate power.
In social psychology the concept has complex connotations, exceeding the idea of unidirectional pressure on the child's social environment and / or adolescent. Traditional model based on the assumption of external control and externally driven change and replace the reciprocity model (Schaffer, 1984), the individual's interaction with its environment. Socialization is a way of human existence and is expressed by three basic needs: a) the need for inclusion (communication, contact), b) the need to ensure that the oversight of individual desirable internalized social norms that will allow them to achieve autonomy and c) need for affection, attachment. Socialization involves so reciprocity contract, insertion in a group. The individual not only supports but also meet, explore, build their own conduct.
G.N. Fischer (1991) identifies the following features of socialization, from the perspective of our discipline:
is a learning process models, values, knowledge, roles; individual items purchased are internalized, become part of his cognitive apparatus, courts set up to establish internal control or moral; developed various models of social behavior as obedience, aggression or competitiveness; Make the individual to internalize the social system functioning, the manner of perceiving the world and to interpret.
Socialization effects are expressed through the acquisition of cultural norms, to acquire self-awareness and self-ideal and by acquiring a sense of belonging to a community and to share with others the feelings and aspirations, to have a cultural identity.
If the process of socialization is disrupted by external factors (distorted information, inappropriate cultural models, etc..) Speak of "social disorder" (Beauvois, Dubois), whether individual or collective, which penalizes the deficit of social acquisitions and is manifested by difficulties community integration. Appropriate socialization effects are manifested by integrating the individual. Social integration of the individual in a given cultural universe, manifests itself by targeting individual behaviors, as expected by others. This customizes the learning and practicing the rituals of social life (rites of passage "which mark the transition from one social condition to another institutional rites or rituals of daily life), learning social roles (male / female, for example) and knowledge social world (the other functions, social structure, social categories), or employability. Claude Dubar (1991) speaks of "social work" as a structuring process of acquiring a profession, the joint demands of a professional organization to establish professional relationships and gaining a "professional and social identities. To build a "model professional" means having a developing professional development and career awareness through profession need a relational identity.
A particular variety of socialization is the internalization process (or internalization). Grusec and Goodnow (1994) defines internalized that fact to "take cognizance of values and attitudes of society in a way acceptable behavior is motivated not by anticipation of consequences, but by intrinsic or external factors." The concept of internalization processes together so motivational, cognitive and social sociocognitive requirement that a foreign, external regulation or value is the internal requirement for the person. Specifically this process is that external compliance requirements are a willingness to internal positive and negative sanctions are exercised by the social environment, but "autodistribuite" by the person himself.
The process of internalization - I Beauvois and Dubois - must be approached in a different manner than socializing: individual (a child, for example) can be perfectly socialized behavior in the register without having internalized the values they imply that register. He may be subject to external demands, but this submission is just complacency, outside, without domestic support, no emotional bonding; records of conduct and behavior are facts of abstinence, distributing obligations and prohibitions. Internalisation determine what to do and what not to do well. We can thus identify the internalization of rules of abstinence or prohibition; requirement establishes levels of internalized values and moral, altruistic or pro-social behavior (to give, help to show goodwill) opposed aggressive behavior. These records of psychosocial intervention were practically and theoretically, an unlimited field of application. Intervention models taught in the family, part of the cultural heritage of the family, group, community. Values that are transmitted are actionable and is incorporated since childhood, maintaining, social and practical exercises, the whole life.
Nicole Dubois (1994) studied internalitate rules they use social actors. They can be defined as value, socially learned, explanations of events psycho, which emphasizes the importance of the actor as causal factor. "Fundamental error" that most people do, in assessing the contribution of factors that can explain the behavior, is to overestimate internal factors. The role of external pressure environment, the behavior is underestimated, empirical research has shown (See Joule, Beauvois, 1987). People have faith that they can control events and assigns a secondary role of external control. The concept of time is central in social psychology from 1935, when the Sheriff made the first experiments on the formation of group norms. Then came research on conformism (Asch, 1952), normalization (Sheriff, 1935, the Montmollin, 1966), innovation (Faucheaux, Moscow, 1967).
In the process of internalizing the values of the legislation is so decisive role. Individuals build their internal rules and their own attribute value using evaluative practices that have social utility. The rules are specific to a group, communities, populations. Research undertaken by Nicole Dubois (1994) demonstrates how to construct rules of liberal democracy.
Our identity interferes with other identities, exchange ideas, feelings, judgments of others, influence or are subjected to social control exercised by institutions or individuals. As Moscovici said, the reality of each of us is a real conflict, tensions and games marked influences of a continuous struggle between order and disorder, coercion and freedom, the opposition between the views, styles, feelings, beliefs. Conflict between individual and society but harmony does not preclude temporary or lasting peace. Specific social psychology is that simultaneously addresses both terms of torque - the individual and society - giving the separation, the habit of treating as autonomous realities. The confrontation of ideas, beliefs, values, representations that we have about them determine and regulate social interactions.
When we say that social psychology studies the relationships, social interactions and exchanges between individuals, we place - of course - the individual as a central element in a relational system, interindividul. The definition given by F. Allport (1924) remains the reference: "Social Psychology as a subject is real or imagined relations between people in a given social context, such as to affect every person involved in this situation." Decades later, his brother, G. Allport (1968) believes that "social psychology tries to explain how thoughts, feelings and behaviors are influenced by the presence of an imaginary individual, implicit or explicit to others." He focuses on the person (cognitive attributes or feelings) that this Directive: another source of influence that our behavior.
Level 1: Analysis intrapsychic (examples: cognitive dissonance, self attribution)
Level 2: Interpersonal processes (examples: the perception of others and interpersonal attraction)
Level 3: interaction between individual and group (examples: compliance group expectations, social facilitation) Level 4: realities of inter-group (examples: competition, inter-group cooperation and exchanges between groups).
Levels of analysis in social psychology can thus be grouped as (by RJ Valleran, d, 1994):
A social psychology textbook I opened we see that it awards the individual a proper place in society. Man is always placed in a specific situation of individual traits articulating a concrete social reality. The man is a man relational social psychology, he is in relationship communication and interaction with others or groups like family, play or work colleagues.
Evening's contribution to the development of our discipline arising from its conception by which human behavior is socially determined. Evening study is considered a precursor of opinions and attitudes, his interest in cognitive and affective aspects of personality, considered the driving force behind social life. In turn, Le Bon found that emotions and beliefs expressed by many sheep tend to require that "unanimously" and can develop into dogmatism and intolerance.
They manifest intense, have a simple construction, are explained and resist change. Le Bon found two causes for this behavior of the crowd: a) emotions and opinions are easily spread, multiply and reinforce each event, b) opinion leaders derive their power of persuasion of personal prestige and local power to fascinate.
Detaching its own territory, social psychology has won that feature, a dynamic, action, ability to intervene in the events. Social psychology man is always in interaction with others, intra-situational, positioned ideologically.
Interaction is a privileged object of social exchange. Jacques-Philippe Leyens said a highly plastic: we can say that social psychology deals with dependence and interdependence of human behaviors. We do so with mutual influence, quantitative or qualitative and it's not even necessary for the partners to be physically present. Just another present it to us so we know the full social psychology. But this is not enough. Since Floyd H. Allport (1924) pointed out that the interaction should be placed in a broader context that fosters the exchange. Contexts may be social, cultural, ideological, or an economy that emphasize the interrelationship may, strangle, block. Interaction of social learning may present as obedience and indoctrination, as a matter of controlling the other. Reaction behavioral traits should be interpreted according to the social context that create conditions for progress.
Sources of inspiration for social psychology, believes, rightly, Drozd-Senkowska, the company offers. Dominant ideology in a given space in a given period, the daily behavior of individuals and human groups were oriented towards research psycho. For example, concern for increased efficiency at work has inspired the famous investigations of E. Mayo and its collaborators on small groups, massive immigration to the United States has stimulated research on attitudes, psychosocial identity, stereotypes and prejudices, has revived research on Nazi compulsion influence and obedience. Changes in Eastern Europe have also opened new research directions, some unexpected. Serge Moscovici, in the preface to the manual tasks that any of our current social psychology is to study social and cultural changes in Eastern Europe. They have a future, it seems, collective psychology, social memory and the nature of social representations. He writes: "For many reasons on which I do not stop here, the future of humanities most plays, paradoxically, in Eastern Europe. We must cooperate and be bound by them, blessing this possibility."
Mugny Deschamp and I emphasized that social psychology is not merely a science of diagnosis, acknowledgment. Field of action - interaction in a given context - has prevented it from becoming a discipline neutral. Who deals with facts and phenomena produced by social agencies and social life can not be "unbiased."
All aspects of the morphological organization of social groups (even the volume density of individuals in the organic structures, especially the distribution of power, division of tasks), interactional techniques used by individuals, their value systems, collective frames of reference are affected by a wing ideological. In turn, social subjects are found in various social behaviors: influence, domination, dependence, deviance, conformity, polarization. We can therefore analyze the communication between individuals than considering them in the social context in which it moves, as social actors "put" the socio-cultural characteristics of their environment.
Even personal history must be placed in a social environment, social biography of each topic is situational, contextual. The identity of psychology must be sought in an effort to describe, explain and make each individual social work. It does not provide solutions or recipes on how we should organize and life styles or models not labeled, no subscription required. It offers ways of understanding and interpretation of important phenomena such as influence and change attitudes, conformity and obedience, persuasion, prejudice, love or aggression, it broadcasts a specific psychosociological culture. Subject (individually or collectively) and subject (social or not, real or imagined) determined by their interaction, the ability to identify the three fields of analysis: individual subject (ego), social issues (Alter) and object (physical, social, imaginary or real). Each level of analysis, says Ewa Drozd-Senkowska French teacher, comes in a different way to organize perceptions, experiences and conditions. Intra-individual level analysis focuses on their mechanisms of information processing, individual inter-relational dynamics between individuals are in a situation, the positional level positions on social differences between individuals or groups, and finally, the ideological level, the systems of rules, ideas and beliefs of individuals and groups.
A sociologist E. Durkheim, published in the same period, a study on suicide (1897) by providing a sociological analysis of an individual decision: the tendency of suicide is inversely proportional to the integration of family, religious, social. Also in precursors and should mention the Paolo d'Orano, who published in 1902 in Italy, Psicologia social and Americans William McDougall and E. Ross, with reference to their work: An Introduction to Social Psychology and Social Psychology , both published in 1908.
Finally, it must noted that social psychology as a science experiment, has already reached a century. Initial experiments in social psychology have been made by Norman Triplett in 1897: the effects of competition on individual performance. As a discipline, social psychology was born in the century. Then they appeared in France, the first works that today we might consider beginning of our discipline: Les Lois de l'Imitation (1890) by Gabriel Evening, often foules Psychology (1895) by Gustave Le Bon and the étude Social Psychology ( 1898) all of the Evening. Can not forget Auguste Compte (1798-1857) for which man is shaped by the company operating there, is never isolated individual, a group he is articulate, more or less organized.
Our field is not the individual, as a separate unit, but no groups or organizations as autonomous social structures. Professor French, Romanian-born Serge Moscovici, has found the solution: social psychology studies the opposition between the individual and society, permanent conflict between the two entities. If only individual or only study the social, our discipline would lose their personality, would become a "useless appendix" of the other sciences. But not happened that way.
For some researchers (see E. Enriquez, 1984) and a psycho is calling action, even militaristic. It is at the center of discussion about democracy and citizenship behavior, she welcomes the appearance of solidarity and community life, favoring the affirmation of respect for each other and access to personal autonomy, remove red tape and mortificate mechanisms, propose projects for improvement. Psycho therefore has social responsibilities in recovery projects.
Psycho approach is not only knowledge but action, organizing projects to change inappropriate situations, intervention on the social field. The new psycho speech patterns is defined by going beyond descriptive and / or explanatory perspectives and adopt a heritage much in the social sciences: research and action. He can no longer be limited to describing objects and states, but is concerned about the processes, phenomena and facts, evolving documents, interactions, influences, changes, personality in the situation, the social context.
Collective existence, groups and organizations are formed, and recompose the decomposed masses driven by ideologies or groups of authority and power structures and aggregates organized guided affective (strikes, protests, demonstrations) are no less interesting. Social movements and they can breathe atmospheric studies.
At the end of this text we ask: what social psychology and who still serve today? The professionals of this discipline are often tempted to believe that all social life and conduct of persons may be approached from a perspective psychosociological. From the outside see things differently: focus solely on laboratory experiments, psychology had cut ties with the real social life were organized into a brotherhood (sect!?) Self-sufficient, do not write only for one group of insiders. They're less concerned technicians social affairs of the city and it deserves the treatment that he treats Plato poets. In S. Moscovici's preface, to which we referred above, it calls on the brethren at the dedication of the energies and interests of "understanding the major issues of Europe at the same level as other humanities." Its very strong warning estrus: if we avoid the real problems, urgent, acute contemporary world, "our position on the scientific map will suffer and our marginalization is safe.
Will be increasingly fewer researchers to concern themselves with what happens in social psychology which seek to engage with us. " Concerned with the same problem - what serves social psychology today - the coordinator of a volume of studies on this subject (Guingonoin Le Poultier, 1994) identifies three explanations to understand the weaknesses of applied social psychology: it is less visible (or accessible) for the transfer The technology is burdened by tight style of these studies, the field does not recognize or value the academic field investigations are conducted only in established research laboratories in universities: research often reach conclusions psycho obvious, accessible to anyone, related by common sense.
Faced with so many dilemmas, there can be only one answer: the articulation of theoretical models to empirical facts, the acquisition of theoretical and practical skills used in the interventions: the organizations, local communities, the wider social field. If we fail to be useful, we will disappear.
BUILDING SOCIAL PERSONALITY
Psychology "classical" approach we propose a model of personality by the "unity of dynamical systems" (Allport), as "a matter of their skills" (Cattell) or a whole functionally structured, focused finalist, articulated in a system hierarchy "(Stern). The environment in which the individual is formed and evolves evacuated here, ignored, deleted.
Under the influence of interactionism, situaţionismului, construct or theory of the Chicago School (school of cultural anthropology), was born a new perspective: personality is the result of interpersonal relations in which the individual is placed, the social environment and cultural activity is involved.
Constructivist perspective on the personality
Along with the view that personality is seen as an individual unit only there as "emanation" of its features, has developed a personality point of view after the construction is (psycho) social "essence" can be identified to in the interactional process, the social process that occurs between individuals. Specifics of personality must be sought not by recording a large number of features, meeting the "synthesis" unique to each individual, but in how the individual interacts with others!
Constructivist point of view, though recent, is more distant or more immediate precursors. Pierre Janet wrote in 1929: "personality is a set of operations, small and large acts that serve to build individual (sn), maintain and improve his unit and his distinction from the world", adding that the distinction is first social place, and material. A closer our time author believes that, far from being conditioned man "builds itself," factors "were merely" raw material "for the work of Self's works, through acts responsibility (Frankl, 1971).
Key constructivist conception of personality is a personality trait considered as a categorical concept (Hampson, 1982). Features are not relevant to real-world entities, but semantic categories, labels for certain attributes. Instead of describing the behaviors such as "push", "is pripeşte", "no patience", "cut it", saying that the individual is an "impulsive", his way of communicating the synthesis of other relations. Both those who communicate and who is picking up a common code used to designate the social significance of behavior, an accepted language as social actors and social observers, to designate certain "styles" of behavior. Language features translate these behaviors structural qualities, but labeled entities could not be known. There are these features only in the psyche or mind Observatory Actor? Features identified by external observers, and advised whether they are perceived as such by the actor and consistency is reflected in its behavior, manifest in his behavior or in his self-evaluations, it is acting "differently"? The significance of self-assessment, self-perception, it is known, has a central place in personality building.
Personality in terms of features, summarize and communicate the significance of behavior, it is socially constructed by the behavior of the actor and the meaning ascribed to this behavior by the observer and the actor himself. In European Conference on Personality, which was held in Tilburg in 1982, Sarah Hampson (1984) advances a viewpoint by which three components can be identified in this "construction": a) the conduct of the actor as an individual biologically distinct social scene brings b) the meanings they attached to this behavior the actor himself and c) the significance attached by the other actor's behavior.
First, actor: individual provide the raw material - behavior - in which personality is built. Biological endowment to print limits of the individual personality, but these individual differences are not sufficient for understanding personality. Behavioral differences must be noticed and acknowledged by the actor himself and by observers to be loaded with social significance to become a personality. One must assume social roles, to participate, to become the "character" to resolve satisfactorily the report "existence / appearance" to be recognized as a personality. As a self-observer, the individual actor must acquire the ability to see with the eyes of others, to be recognized as distinct and individual notice. We are not only aware that others think about us, we are even able to form an impression about what they think about us, about their image on our person. At the core concept of personality is a social construct "competence" to see the man as others see it. The first step is acquiring the ability to return to itself, to be seen. E conquering self-awareness, the ability to control self-control. Second, recognizing that power to others, awareness of self-awareness of each other. In this way we can get an impression of us do our image in the consciousness of others. The paradox of self-knowledge, says Pavelcu V. (1970) is as follows: the more away from me, the closer. It takes an intermediate link, an indirect relationship, mediated between me and myself as subject as object. This link is another. Through him we come to make an impression on our image in the consciousness of others. "Other" is a crucial source of information about me. Builds their self images matching the others about me, comparing the multitude of selves, manifested by the roles they play him in relation to the social situation. The same individual several roles on "stage" of life. "Acclaimed" each individual is determined by the desire to gain public esteem, prestige, moral character and to avoid negative labels. We build the role of the expectations of others. Paraphrasing M. Mead: Our existence depends on the waste with other waste to enter into relationships. Finally, the actor-observer: observer of personality built component refers to beliefs that people have about personality. Components in a social context, are endowed with social significance by those who observe them. Mentalities, cultural level, the training environment creates a "reading grid" personality, according to an ideal model and evaluate this tool to others. Depending on the personality construct another "theory" that we have formed a social role of personality, personality according to our picture made. G.A. Kelly, author of the theory of "constructs", believes that interpret, anticipate, act according to these "constructs" personal - ideas, concepts, beliefs, attitudes and mentalities. An interpreter of this theory states: "A person anticipates events by their replies" (Bannister, 1973). In other words, do not react to a stimulus, but to what we think is that stimulus. The same event may have a special emotional resonance and record feedback on the fit for an individual and may remain without effect for another. It matters that we give meaning to the event. "Construct" a picture is standard but a set of internal characteristics that individual invariably operates. In Kelly's theory, said S. Hampson, the actor is characterized by a unique set of buildings that interpret the world. He placed in the actor's personality. But in order to interpret the world, the individual needs feed-back offered by other "buildings". Constructivist perspective on personality than Kelly's view, not far from the theory of traits, that it thinks "the construction of personality rather than a closed set, finite variables, although related harmoniously with each other, but as a relational system: build my image of considering my "construction" of others, including their image of me. empathic capacity acquisition brings its own changes to the system construction. empathic competence helps us build the greatest success, its absence leads to the "construction" dissonant, which provides often the occasion for dissatisfaction. We build as personalities so appealing to a variety of sources, many outside of us (comments and feedback to others), even self-observation and self-control are determined by the scale of assessment offered by the group, social collectivity. personality as a social construction design but goes further, arguing that personality is actually created by social relations and therefore can not be located exclusively in the individual. Only social interaction shapes the personality, change our expectations of behavior depending on its appreciate, unless we achieve a sense office building has been validated.
A neglected variable: state
In addressing personality, psychologists have taken little account of dynamic and continuous interaction with the environment. Only person-situation interaction, however, reveal specific features of media systems: knowledge and perceptions of the individual, its mode of information processing, emotion and its physiological processes. From birth to adulthood an individual is engaged in a continuous two-way action in his environment, behavior characteristics vary by situation. A scholar of personality as Raymond Cattell (1963) was able to say, not without reason: "Not taking into account the situation is one of the main causes of judging wrong personality. The context calls for the whole personality, not just sections such as the cognitive or affective. Not an abstract person, divorced from context, but the person in the situation - here's the key personalities of each approach on its proposed position situaţionistă.
In theories of personality, the situation has often stressed the role: behaviourists, dynamic field theory, personologii, interacţioniştii have shown the situational context. But the consequences for personality research have been reduced. W. Mischel (Personality and Assessment,1968), noting that the various "arrangements" does not cooperate, only weak empirical indicators, argues that changes can be explained by changes in the situation. It therefore requires a taxonomy to classify the situational characteristics for encoding of stimuli, from the perceiver. According to this view, the relevant provisions that are not "introversion-extraversiuinea" or "anxiety", but cognitions, which must act as mediators between environmental changes and behavior "discriminative ability." Essential parameters of this theory are: individual skills "to build" special forms of behavior in appropriate circumstances, "expectations" about some of his events, the value they possess, "consequences" for the person who acts in self-regulating system of the individual. Analyzing the current state of research this issue, David Magnusson (1984), professor at Stockholm University, notes: shortage of everyday language and scientific one who possess conceptualization, relevant distinctions and categories that allow us to communicate systematically about the situation and person by situational interactions. It still ignores the possibility of differentiating behaviors depending on the contexts in which they appear. Theorists "features" have neglected or underestimated role in understanding and explaining behavior situation.
The result? Attributing causes individual behavior, without paying attention to the situational context. Probabilities determined by the situation means that certain situational conditions will lead to certain consequences regarding the behavior. From here one can deduce two things: a) on the one hand, in some cases, individuals will expect certain events to happen, he will perceive the future depending on situational context, b) on the other hand, we find that individuals attach to certain emotional load situations likely to cause a certain behavior. The situation therefore contains routing support, guidance, stimulation behavior. Here's an empirical illustration, as reported by Magnusson: based on research undertaken in four different countries, it was found that differences in age and sex significantly influence the perception of situational framework. Expectations and predictions of future events are dependent on how people have perceived environmental situations in the past and scenarios of future actions are dependent on these perceptions.
Any attempt to study the personality, therefore, must contain a way to use "situational properties" and "types of situations." It should, without doubt, a taxonomy of situations, as he tried Van Heck (1984), who selected 20 cases with a higher rate of occurrence in everyday life, including: conflict, conversation, cooperation, the declaration of love discussion, exams, lessons, etc. visit. David Magnusson, in turn, believe that a taxonomy of situations is possible as long as there is order and regularity in the environment. If these environmental conditions are met, expected behavior is logical, subject to an end, the part of individuals. Stimuli, events can be grouped into homogeneous categories based on common characteristics. Cultures can be categorized, for example, by means used by individuals to achieve their goals, such as rewarding offered for a certain type of behavior. The order and regularity of physical and social environment can be expressed in terms of physical properties in terms of cultural norms, rules, roles, identifying their meanings for individuals. The interactions undertaken in everyday life, individuals purchase "conceptual machines," said De Raad (1986), which are plausible world around them and their experiences in this world. And through this mechanism, you can call and "social learning", are born and change perceptions about people, about personality and character.
Marthe Takala (1984), professor at the University of Jyväskylä (Finland), believes that the situation may include both "learning history" made by the individual and "transactions" of the average of the past or present situations. This approach belongs to the personality, in fact, constructivist concept: personality is "an artificial social act, a set of categories for making sense of the variety of behavior and can not be understood only in the" context "through the use of relationship content and intentions of those who communicate statements. The way in which those involved must face is guided by a pragmatic understanding of the roles with which they are equipped. Then build scenarios that describe different ways in which participants organize their activities, attitudes toward one another, their perceptions about the quality of involvement.
Socialization and internalization
The human personality is constructed through interaction with others, from childhood and continuing throughout life. The process of socialization means the social nature of human development, determined by the particular experiences of each individual. Similarities arise through socialization, and differences between members of a community or a group, individual changes his behavior continued to meet expectations of others, to articulate the social conventions. This process of acquisition and adjusting the permanent integration and progressive internalization of moral and cultural norms and values is called socialization. Its specificity is that, through social learning, individuals experiencing cognitive structures acting and models: styles of speech, goals, beliefs, theories, values and attitudes which enable it to function increasingly articulated interpersonal and social relations in intra-and intergroup relations in public statuses (J.-L. Beauvois, N. Dubois, 1999).
Socialization thus requires, first, learning through interaction with others, patterns of social conduct, the common knowledge or rules, regulations, customs, rites spread in a society. The effect would be to standardize behavior, although this is possible, but the differentiation according to different forms of influence received capabilities and features of the individual to process information. Socialization can be approached with training (as learning to a favorable social insertion), ethnological (the incorporation of models of thought and action as the transmission of knowledge), anthropology (cultural models offering, skills, attitudes and motivations) or psychological (personality development through social interaction with the environment).
For Piaget the child's development is a continuous and balanced, covering some distinct stages, the articulation of two complementary movements: assimilation or incorporation of certain things or conduct the structures already constructed or readjustment and accommodation structures depending on external changes. Going through the different stages of child egocentrism than originally characterized by blurred between myself and the world and ends by the insertion in the school or professional life. Sociologist Emile Durkheim capitalized on the importance of collective consciousness (transmission from one generation to another, the rules and traditions), the role of moral education in building an identity. In turn, Max Weber distinguished associative socialization through volunteer effort, institutional socialization, through the imposition of the legitimate power.
In social psychology the concept has complex connotations, exceeding the idea of unidirectional pressure on the child's social environment and / or adolescent. Traditional model based on the assumption of external control and externally driven change and replace the reciprocity model (Schaffer, 1984), the individual's interaction with its environment. Socialization is a way of human existence and is expressed by three basic needs: a) the need for inclusion (communication, contact), b) the need to ensure that the oversight of individual desirable internalized social norms that will allow them to achieve autonomy and c) need for affection, attachment. Socialization involves so reciprocity contract, insertion in a group. The individual not only supports but also meet, explore, build their own conduct.
G.N. Fischer (1991) identifies the following features of socialization, from the perspective of our discipline:
is a learning process models, values, knowledge, roles; individual items purchased are internalized, become part of his cognitive apparatus, courts set up to establish internal control or moral; developed various models of social behavior as obedience, aggression or competitiveness; Make the individual to internalize the social system functioning, the manner of perceiving the world and to interpret.
Socialization effects are expressed through the acquisition of cultural norms, to acquire self-awareness and self-ideal and by acquiring a sense of belonging to a community and to share with others the feelings and aspirations, to have a cultural identity.
If the process of socialization is disrupted by external factors (distorted information, inappropriate cultural models, etc..) Speak of "social disorder" (Beauvois, Dubois), whether individual or collective, which penalizes the deficit of social acquisitions and is manifested by difficulties community integration. Appropriate socialization effects are manifested by integrating the individual. Social integration of the individual in a given cultural universe, manifests itself by targeting individual behaviors, as expected by others. This customizes the learning and practicing the rituals of social life (rites of passage "which mark the transition from one social condition to another institutional rites or rituals of daily life), learning social roles (male / female, for example) and knowledge social world (the other functions, social structure, social categories), or employability. Claude Dubar (1991) speaks of "social work" as a structuring process of acquiring a profession, the joint demands of a professional organization to establish professional relationships and gaining a "professional and social identities. To build a "model professional" means having a developing professional development and career awareness through profession need a relational identity.
A particular variety of socialization is the internalization process (or internalization). Grusec and Goodnow (1994) defines internalized that fact to "take cognizance of values and attitudes of society in a way acceptable behavior is motivated not by anticipation of consequences, but by intrinsic or external factors." The concept of internalization processes together so motivational, cognitive and social sociocognitive requirement that a foreign, external regulation or value is the internal requirement for the person. Specifically this process is that external compliance requirements are a willingness to internal positive and negative sanctions are exercised by the social environment, but "autodistribuite" by the person himself.
The process of internalization - I Beauvois and Dubois - must be approached in a different manner than socializing: individual (a child, for example) can be perfectly socialized behavior in the register without having internalized the values they imply that register. He may be subject to external demands, but this submission is just complacency, outside, without domestic support, no emotional bonding; records of conduct and behavior are facts of abstinence, distributing obligations and prohibitions. Internalisation determine what to do and what not to do well. We can thus identify the internalization of rules of abstinence or prohibition; requirement establishes levels of internalized values and moral, altruistic or pro-social behavior (to give, help to show goodwill) opposed aggressive behavior. These records of psychosocial intervention were practically and theoretically, an unlimited field of application. Intervention models taught in the family, part of the cultural heritage of the family, group, community. Values that are transmitted are actionable and is incorporated since childhood, maintaining, social and practical exercises, the whole life.
Nicole Dubois (1994) studied internalitate rules they use social actors. They can be defined as value, socially learned, explanations of events psycho, which emphasizes the importance of the actor as causal factor. "Fundamental error" that most people do, in assessing the contribution of factors that can explain the behavior, is to overestimate internal factors. The role of external pressure environment, the behavior is underestimated, empirical research has shown (See Joule, Beauvois, 1987). People have faith that they can control events and assigns a secondary role of external control. The concept of time is central in social psychology from 1935, when the Sheriff made the first experiments on the formation of group norms. Then came research on conformism (Asch, 1952), normalization (Sheriff, 1935, the Montmollin, 1966), innovation (Faucheaux, Moscow, 1967).
The notion of time is used in several meanings: group norms, social norms, cultural, behavioral, evalutivă. Rule means the acceptance of a rule of social conduct, a social custom or model. Normal characteristic is that it excludes the idea of coercion, replacing it with the value (social valuation). A norm is an expression of corporate data, it assigns a value (an event is considered as desirable, good), it does not require an institutional constraint and is independent of the criterion of truth. This means that an event can be evaluated positively because it means a social utility and enables social objectives (Beauvois, Joule, 1981; Beauvois, 1990; Beauvois, Dubois 1992, 1993). To summarize: a social norm is so "business" of a collective, it is socially learned, assign a value to an event or object and is a social utility (and not really worth).
In the process of internalizing the values of the legislation is so decisive role. Individuals build their internal rules and their own attribute value using evaluative practices that have social utility. The rules are specific to a group, communities, populations. Research undertaken by Nicole Dubois (1994) demonstrates how to construct rules of liberal democracy.
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